1931
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This article is about the year 1931.
Centuries: 19th century – 20th century – 21st century
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1931 in other calendars
Gregorian calendar 1931
MCMXXXI
MCMXXXI
Ab urbe condita 2684
Armenian calendar 1380
Ô¹ÕŽ ՌՅÕ
Ô¹ÕŽ ՌՅÕ
Assyrian calendar 6681
Bahá'à calendar 87–88
Bengali calendar 1338
Berber calendar 2881
British Regnal year 20 Geo. 5 – 21 Geo. 5
Buddhist calendar 2475
Burmese calendar 1293
Byzantine calendar 7439–7440
Chinese calendar 庚åˆå¹´å一月å三日
(4567/4627-11-13)
(4568/4628-11-23)
(4567/4627-11-13)
— to —
辛未年å一月廿三日(4568/4628-11-23)
Coptic calendar 1647–1648
Ethiopian calendar 1923–1924
Hebrew calendar 5691–5692
- Vikram Samvat 1987–1988
- Shaka Samvat 1853–1854
- Kali Yuga 5032–5033
Holocene calendar 11931
Iranian calendar 1309–1310
Islamic calendar 1349–1350
Japanese calendar ShÅwa 6
(æ˜å’Œ6å¹´)
(æ˜å’Œ6å¹´)
Korean calendar 4264
Minguo calendar ROC 20
民國20年
民國20年
Thai solar calendar 2474
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: 1931Year 1931 (MCMXXXI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1931 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar.
[edit] Events
[edit] January
January 2 – South Dakota native Ernest Lawrence invents the cyclotron, used to accelerate particles to study nuclear physics. January 3 – Albert Einstein begins doing research at the California Institute of Technology, along with astronomer Edwin Hubble. January 4 – German pilot Elly Beinhorn begins her flight to Africa. January 6 – Thomas Edison submits his last patent application. January 22 – Sir Isaac Isaacs is sworn in as the first Australian-born Governor-General of Australia. January 25 – Mohandas Gandhi is released again in India. January 27 – Pierre Laval forms a government in France. January 30 – The release of the movie City Lights starring Charlie Chaplin.
[edit] February
February 3 – Hawke's Bay earthquake: Much of the New Zealand city of Napier is destroyed in an earthquake measuring 7.9 on the Richter scale. February 10 – New Delhi becomes the capital of India. February 12 – Radio Vaticana first broadcasts. February 14 – The original film version of Dracula with Bela Lugosi is released. February 16 – Pehr Evind Svinhufvud is elected president of Finland. February 20 – California gets the go-ahead by the U.S. Congress to build the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge. February 21 – Peruvian revolutionaries hijack a Ford Trimotor aeroplane and demand that the pilot drop propaganda leaflets over Lima.
[edit] March
March 1 – The USS Arizona is placed back in full commission after a refit. March 3 – The Star-Spangled Banner is adopted as the United States National anthem. March 4 – The British viceroy of India and Mohandas Gandhi negotiate. March 7 – The new House of Representatives opens in Helsinki, Finland. March 11 – The Ready for Labour and Defence of the USSR programme, abbreviated as GTO, is introduced in the Soviet Union. March 17 – Nevada legalizes gambling. March 23 – Indian revolutionary leaders Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev are hanged by the British Government. March 25 – The Scottsboro Boys are arrested in Alabama and charged with rape. March 27 – British writer Arnold Bennett dies of typhoid in London shortly after returning from a visit to Paris, where he drank local water to prove it was safe. March 31 – An earthquake destroys Managua, Nicaragua, killing 2,000 people.
[edit] April
April 6 – The Portuguese government declares martial law in Madeira and in the Azores because of an attempted military takeover in Funchal. April 9 – Argentinian anarchist Severino Digiovanni is executed. April 14 – The Second Spanish Republic is proclaimed in Madrid. April 15 – The Castellemmarese War ends with the assassination of Joe "The Boss" Masseria, briefly leaving Salvatore Maranzano as capo di tutti i capi ("boss of all bosses") and undisputed ruler of the American Mafia. Maranzano is himself assassinated less than 6 months later, leading to the establishment of the Five Families. April 22 – Austria, Britain, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Sweden and the USA recognize the Spanish Republic.
[edit] May
May 1 – Construction of the Empire State Building is completed in New York City. May 4 – Kemal Atatürk is re-elected president of Turkey. May 5 – İsmet İnönü forms new government in Turkey. (7th government) May 11 – The Creditanstalt, Austria's largest bank, goes bankrupt, beginning the banking collapse in Central Europe that causes a worldwide financial meltdown. May 13 – Paul Doumer is elected president of France.
[edit] June
June 5 – German Chancellor Dr. Heinrich Brüning visits London, where he warns the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald that the collapse of the Austrian banking system, caused by the bankruptcy of the Creditanstalt, has left the entire German banking system on the verge of collapse. June 12 – Charlie Parker equals J.T. Hearne's record for the earliest date to reach 100 wickets. June 14 – The overloaded pleasure craft Saint-Philibert, carrying trippers home to Nantes from Île de Noirmoutier, sinks at the mouth of the river Loire in France; over 450 drown. June 19 – In an attempt to stop the banking crisis in Central Europe from causing a worldwide financial meltdown, President Herbert Hoover issues the Hoover Moratorium. June 23 – Wiley Post and Harold Gatty take off from Roosevelt Field, Long Island in an attempt to accomplish the first round-the-world flight in a single-engine plane.[1]
[edit] July
July – John Haven Emerson of Cambridge, Massachusetts perfects the Emerson iron lung just in time for the growing polio epidemic. July 1 – Milan Central Station officially opens in Italy. July 9 – Irish racing driver Kaye Don breaks the world water speed record at Lake Garda, Italy.[2] July 16 – Emperor Haile Selassie signs the first constitution of Ethiopia. July 26 – The millennialist Bible Student movement adopts the name Jehovah's Witnesses at a meeting in Columbus, Ohio.
[edit] August
The 1931 China floods reach their peak in possibly the deadliest natural disaster yet recorded August 24 – The Labour Government of Ramsay MacDonald resigns in Britain, replaced by a National Government of people drawn from all parties, also under MacDonald.
[edit] September
September 5 – John Thomson, football player, dies in an accident during a Celtic–Rangers match. September 10 – The worst hurricane in Belize history kills an estimated 1,500. September 15 – Invergordon Mutiny: Strikes are called in the Royal Navy due to decreased salaries. September 16 – Hanging of Omar Mukhtar. September 18
Japan stages the Mukden Incident as a pretext to occupy Manchuria. Geli Raubal commits suicide in Adolf Hitler's apartment.
September 20– With a gun literally pointed to his head the Chinese commander of Kirin province announces the annexation of that territory to Japan. September 22 – United Kingdom abandons gold standard. October – The Caltech Department of Physics Faculty and graduate students meet with Albert Einstein as a guest.[edit] October
October 4 – Dick Tracy, a comic strip detective character created by cartoonist Chester Gould, made its debut appearance in the Detroit Mirror newspaper. October 17
Leeds Bradford International Airport is opened as Leeds and Bradford Municipal Aerodrome American gangster Al Capone is sentenced to 11 years in prison for tax evasion in Chicago, Illinois.
October 24 – The George Washington Bridge is dedicated; it opens to traffic the following day.[edit] November
November 7 – The Chinese Soviet Republic is proclaimed by Mao Zedong. November 8
French police launch a large-scale raid against Corsican bandits. The Panama Canal is closed for a couple of weeks due to damage caused by earthquakes.
November 25 – Heavy Hydrogen, later named Deuterium, is discovered by chemist Harold Clayton Urey.
Ali Fethi Okyar forms a new government in Turkey (third government). Release of James Whale's film of Frankenstein in New York.
[edit] December
December 8 – Carl Friedrich Goerdeler is appointed Reich Price Commissioner in Germany to enforce the deflationary policies of the Brüning government. December 10
Jane Addams became the first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Niceto Alcalá-Zamora is elected president of the Spanish Republic.
December 11 – The British Parliament enacts the Statute of Westminster, which establishes a status of legislative equality between the self-governing dominions of the Commonwealth of Australia, the Dominion of Canada, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland, the Dominion of New Zealand, and the Union of South Africa. December 13 – Wakatsuki ReijirŠresigns as Prime Minister of Japan. December 26 – Phi Iota Alpha, the oldest existing Latino fraternity, is founded. December 31 – Statute of Westminster creates the British Commonwealth of Nations.[edit] Date unknown
The Huang He floods kill between 850,000 and 4,000,000 people (the deadliest historic natural disaster). Ust-Abakanskoye becomes Abakan. The National Committee for Modification of the Volstead Act is formed to work for the repeal of prohibition in the United States. The Persistence of Memory is put on display for the first time in Paris at the Galerie Pierre Colle.
[edit] Births
[edit] January–February
January 5
Alvin Ailey, American choreographer (d. 1989) Alfred Brendel, Austrian pianist Robert Duvall, American actor and director
January 6 – E. L. Doctorow, American author January 8 – Bill Graham, German concert promoter (d. 1991) January 10 – Peter Barnes, English playwright and screenwriter (d. 2004) January 12 – Roland Alphonso, Jamaican musician (d. 1998) January 13 – Charles Nelson Reilly, American actor (d. 2007) January 14 – Caterina Valente, French singer and actress January 16 – Johannes Rau, President of Germany (d. 2006) January 17 – James Earl Jones, American actor January 18 – Chun Doo-hwan, President of South Korea January 19
Robert MacNeil, Canadian journalist Pat Hunt, retired New Zealand politician from the National Party
January 20 – David Lee, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate January 22 – Sam Cooke, American singer (d. 1964) January 26 – Alfred Lynch, English actor (d. 2003) January 27 – Mordecai Richler, Canadian author (d. 2001) January 29 – Ferenc Madl, President of Hungary January 30 – Allan W. Eckert, American historian, naturalist, and author January 31 – Ernie Banks, American baseball player February 1
February 2
Dries van Agt, Dutch politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands from 1977 until 1982 Les Dawson, British comedian (d. 1993)
February 6
Mamie Van Doren, American actress and author Rip Torn, American actor and director
February 8 – James Dean, American actor (d. 1955) February 9 – Thomas Bernhard, Dutch author (d. 1989) February 11 – Larry Merchant, American author and boxing commentator February 13 – Geoff Edwards, American actor and game show host February 16
George E. Sangmeister, American politician (d. 2007) Ken Takakura, Japanese actor
February 18
Johnny Hart, American cartoonist (d. 2007) Toni Morrison, American writer, Nobel Prize laureate Bob St. Clair, American football player
February 24 – Brian Close, British cricketer February 25 – Eric Edgar Cooke, Australian Murderer (d. 1964) February 26 – Ally McLeod, Scottish football manager February 28
Dean Smith, American basketball coach Gavin MacLeod, American actor and Mayor of Pacific Palisades (The Mary Tyler Moore and The Love Boat)
[edit] March–April
March 2 – Mikhail Gorbachev, President of the Soviet Union, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize March 3 – John Smith, American actor (d. 1995) March 4
Wally Bruner, American journalist and television host (d. 1997) William Henry Keeler, American Roman Catholic Archbishop and Cardinal Alice Rivlin, American economist
March 8 – Neil Postman, American media theorist and cultural critic March 11 – Rupert Murdoch, Australian-born publisher March 18 – Shirley Stovroff, American female professional baseball player (d. 1994) March 20
Hal Linden, American actor and singer Karen Steele, American actress (d. 1988)
March 22
Burton Richter, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate William Shatner, Canadian actor
March 24 – Connie Hines, American actress (d. 2009) March 26 – Leonard Nimoy, American actor and director March 29
Aleksei Gubarev, Russian cosmonaut Norman Tebbit, British politician
April 1
Rolf Hochhuth, German writer Ita Ever, Estonian actress
April 5 – Héctor Olivera, Argentine film director, producer and screenwriter April 6 – Suchitra Sen (Roma Dasgupta), legendary Bengali actress April 11
Luis Cabral, Guinea-Bissauan President (d. 2009) Johnny Sheffield, American actor (d. 2010) Mustafa Dagistanli, Turkish free-style wrestler
April 15 – Helen Maksagak, Canadian, first Inuk and woman to be the Commissioner of both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut (d. 2009) April 27 – Igor Oistrakh, Ukrainian violinist April 29
Frank Auerbach, German-born painter Lonnie Donegan, Scottish musician (d. 2002)
[edit] May–June
May 6 – Willie Mays, African-American baseball player May 7 – Teresa Brewer, American pop and jazz singer (d. 2007) May 13
May 14 – Alvin Lucier, American composer May 15
Joseph A. Califano, Jr., Chairman of the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse Ken Venturi, American golfer
May 16
Natwar Singh, Indian politician Jack Dodson, American actor (d. 1994)
May 18 – Robert Morse, American actor May 19 – Eric Tappy, Swiss tenor May 20 – Ken Boyer, American baseball player (d. 1982) May 25 – Georgy Grechko, Russian cosmonaut May 28 – Carroll Baker, American actress May 30 – Fr. John O'Brien, Irish priest and musician (d. 2008) May 31
John Robert Schrieffer, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate Shirley Verrett, American mezzo-soprano
June 2 – Larry Jackson, American baseball player (d. 1990) June 3
Lindy Remigino, American athlete Raúl Castro, President of Cuba
June 7 – Malcolm Morley, English-born painter June 8 – Dana Wynter, German-born American actress (d. 2011) June 9
Jackie Mason, American comedian Joe Santos, American actor
June 10 – João Gilberto, Brazilian musician June 13 – Moysés Baumstein, Brazilian holographer and artist June 14
Kenneth Cope, English actor Ross Higgins, Australian actor Junior Walker, American saxophonist and singer (d. 1995) Marla Gibbs, American comedienne, actress and singer (The Jeffersons and 227)
June 18 – Fernando Henrique Cardoso, former President of Brazil June 20
Olympia Dukakis, American actress Arne Nordheim, Norwegian composer (d. 2010)
June 21 – Margaret Mary O'Shaughnessy Heckler, American Secretary of Health and Human Services June 24 – Billy Casper, American golfer June 25 – Vishwanath Pratap Singh, former Prime Minister of India (d. 2008) June 26 – Colin Wilson, British writer June 27 – Martinus J. G. Veltman, Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate[edit] July–August
July 1
Leslie Caron, French actress Seyni Kountche, former President of Niger (d. 1987)
July 2 – Robert Ito, Canadian actor July 4 – Stephen Boyd, Irish actor (d. 1977) July 5 – Ismail Mahomed, South African and Namibian Chief Justice (d. 2000) July 6
Robert Dunham, American actor and writer (d. 2001) Jean Campeau, French Canadian businessman and politician Della Reese, American actress, singer and evangelist (Touched By An Angel)
July 7 – David Eddings, American novelist (d. 2009) July 10
Nick Adams, American actor (d. 1968) Alice Munro, Canadian writer
July 11 – Tab Hunter, American actor and singer (Damn Yankees) July 15 – Clive Cussler, American author July 19 – Mary Lou Studnicka, American female professional baseball player July 23 – Te Atairangi Kaahu, MÄori Queen (d. 2006) July 26 – Fred Foster, American songwriter and record producer July 27 – Jerry Van Dyke, American comedian and actor August 7 – Charles E. "Charlie" Rice, American legal scholar and author August 9 – Mario Zagallo, Brazilian football player and manager August 12 – William Goldman, American author August 15
Joe Feeney, American singer (d. 2008) Florian ZaBach, American musician and TV personality (d. 2006)
August 18
Bramwell Tillsley, General of The Salvation Army Hans van Mierlo, Dutch politician, Minister of Foreign Affairs and Deputy Prime Minister (d. 2010)
August 19 – Willie Shoemaker, American jockey (d. 2003) August 20 – Don King, American boxing promoter August 23 – Hamilton O. Smith, American microbiologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine August 25
Hal Fishman, Los Angeles based local news anchor (d. 2007) Regis Philbin, American television personality
August 28 – John Shirley-Quirk, English bass-baritone August 30
Jacques Braunstein, Romanian-born Venezuelan economist, publiicist and disc jockey (d. 2009) Jack Swigert, American astronaut (d. 1982)
August 31
Noble Willingham, American actor (d. 2004) Jean Béliveau, Canadian hockey player Kenny Burrell, American jazz musician
[edit] September–October
September 1
Cecil Parkinson, British politician Javier Solis, Mexican ranchera & bolero singer (d. 1966)
September 4 – Mitzi Gaynor, American actress, singer and dancer September 8 – Jack Rosenthal, English playwright (d. 2004) September 10 – Philip Baker Hall, American actor September 12
Ian Holm, British actor George Jones, American country music singer and songwriter
September 17 – Anne Bancroft, American actress (d. 2005) September 21
Gertrude Alderfer, American female professional baseball player Gloria Cordes, American female professional baseball player Larry Hagman, American actor and director (Dallas)
September 22
Fay Weldon, British author George Younger, 4th Viscount Younger of Leckie, British politician (d. 2003)
September 23 – Gerald Stairs Merrithew, Canadian educator and statesman (d. 2004) September 29
James Watson Cronin, American nuclear physicist, Nobel Prize laureate Anita Ekberg, Swedish actress
September 30
Wesley L. Fox, U.S. Marine Corps officer Angie Dickinson, American actress (Police Woman)
October 1 – Alan Wagner, American opera critic October 6 – Riccardo Giacconi, Italian-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate October 7
Cotton Fitzsimmons, American basketball coach (d. 2004) Desmond Tutu, South African Anglican archbishop and activist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
October 13 – Eddie Mathews, baseball player (d. 2001) October 15 – Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam, President of India October 16
James Chace, American historian (d. 2004) Charles Colson, American Watergate conspirator Rosa Rosal, Filipino actress and humanitarian
October 17 –
José Alencar, Brazilian politician (d. 2011) Ernst Hinterberger, Austrian writer
October 19 – John le Carré, English novelist October 20 – Mickey Mantle, American baseball player (d. 1995) Morris Cerullo, American Televangelist October 23
Jim Bunning, American baseball player and U.S. Senator Diana Dors, English actress (d. 1984)
October 25 – Jimmy McIlroy, Irish footballer and football manager October 31
Isabel Alvarez, Cuban female professional baseball player Dan Rather, American television news reporter
[edit] November–December
November 3
Peggy McCay, American actress Monica Vitti, Italian actress Michael Fu Tieshan, Chinese bishop (d. 2007)
November 4 – Marie Mansfield, American professional baseball player November 5 – Ike Turner, African-American singer and songwriter (d. 2007) November 6 – Mike Nichols, German-American television actor, writer and director November 8
Morley Safer, Canadian journalist Darla Hood, American actress (d. 1979)
November 9 – Whitey Herzog, American baseball player November 12 – Bob Crewe, American singer, songwriter, manager, and producer November 15 – Mwai Kibaki, third President of Kenya November 16 – Hubert Sumlin, American blues musician November 21
Malcolm Williamson, Australian composer (d. 2003) Revaz Dogonadze, Georgian physicist (d. 1985)
November 23 – Dervla Murphy, Irish author November 26 – Adolfo Pérez Esquivel, Argentine activist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize December 1
Jimmy Lyons, American musician (d. 1986) Jim Nesbitt, American country music singer (d. 2007)
December 2
Edwin Meese, American attorney general Nigel Calder, British science writer
December 9 – Ladislav Smoljak, Czech film and theater director, actor and screenwriter December 11 – Rita Moreno, Academy award–winning Puerto Rican actress December 12 – Lionel Blair, British actor, choreographer, tap dancer, headmaster and TV presenter December 17 – Dave Madden, Canadian actor December 23 – Ronnie Schell, American actor December 24 – Mauricio Kagel, Argentine composer (d. 2008) December 28 – Martin Milner, American actor December 30 – Skeeter Davis, American singer (d. 2004) December 31 – Bob Shaw, Irish writer (d. 1996)[edit] Deaths
[edit] January–June
January 3 – Joseph Joffre, French World War I general (b. 1852) January 4
Art Acord, American actor (b. 1890) Louise, Princess Royal and Duchess of Fife, British royal, eldest daughter of Edward VII (b. 1867)
January 11 – James Milton Carroll, Baptist pastor, historian, and author (b. 1852) January 14 – Hardy Richardson, baseball player (b. 1855) January 22 – Alma Rubens, American actress (b. 1897) January 23 – Anna Pavlova, Russian ballerina (b. 1881) February 11 – Charles Algernon Parsons, British inventor (b. 1854) February 16 – Wilhelm von Gloeden, German photographer (b. 1856) February 18 – Louis Wolheim, American actor (b. 1880) February 23 – Dame Nellie Melba, Australian soprano (b. 1861) February 26 – Otto Wallach, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1847) March 5 – Arthur Tooth, Anglican clergyman (b. 1839) March 7 – Akseli Gallén-Kallela, Finnish painter (b. 1865) March 11 – F.W. Murnau, German director (b. 1888) March 20 – Hermann Müller, Chancellor of Germany (b. 1876) March 21 – Bhagat Singh, Indian revolutionary (b. 1908) March 24 – Robert Edeson, American actor (b. 1868) March 25 – Ida Wells, African-American lynching crusader. March 27 – Arnold Bennett, English novelist (b. 1867) March 28 – Ban Johnson, American baseball executive (b. 1864) March 31 – Knute Rockne, American football coach (b. 1888) April 8 – Erik Axel Karlfeldt, Swedish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1864) April 9 – Nicholas Longworth, American politician, Speaker of the House (b. 1869) April 10 – Khalil Gibran, Lebanese poet and painter (b. 1883) April 20 – Cosmo Duff-Gordon, British baronet and Titanic survivor (b. 1862) April 26 – George Herbert Mead, American philosopher (b. 1863) April 30 – Sammy Woods, English cricketer (b. 1867) May 2 – George Fisher Baker, American financier and philanthropist (b. 1840) May 9 – Albert Abraham Michelson, German-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1852) May 14 – David Belasco, American writer (b. 1853) June 2 – Joseph Farnham, American screenwriter (b. 1884) June 4 – Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, Arab nationalist[edit] July–December
July 4 – Buddie Petit, American jazz musician July 12 – Nathan Söderblom, Swedish archbishop, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1866) August 6 – Bix Beiderbecke, American jazz trumpeter (b. 1903) August 15 – Nigar Shikhlinskaya, Azerbaijani World War I nurse (b. ca. 1878) August 26 – Hamaguchi Osachi, 27th Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1870) August 27
Frank Harris, Irish author and editor (b. 1856) Francis Marion Smith, American businessman (b. 1846)
September 5 – John Thomson, Scottish footballer (b. 1909) September 16 – Omar Mukhtar, the leader of Libyan resistance (b. 1862?) October 3 – Carl Nielsen, Danish composer (b. 1865) October 13 – Ernst Didring, Swedish writer (b. 1868) October 18 – Thomas Edison, American inventor (b. 1847) October 24 – Sir Murray Bisset, South African cricketer and Governor of Southern Rhodesia (b. 1876) November 4 – Buddy Bolden, African-American musician (b. 1877) November 11 – Shibusawa Eiichi, Japanese industrialist (b. 1840) November 20 – Julius Drewe, English businessman, retailer and entrepreneur (b. 1856) December 2 – Vincent d'Indy, French composer (b. 1851) December 5 – Vachel Lindsay, American poet (b. 1879) December 18 – Jack Diamond, American gangster (b. 1897) December 23 – Tyrone Power, Sr., American actor (b. 1869) December 26 – Melvil Dewey, American librarian, inventor of Dewey Decimal Classification (b. 1851)[edit] Date unknown
Joseph Tabrar, British songwriter (b. 1857)
[edit] Nobel Prizes
Physics – not awarded Chemistry – Carl Bosch, Friedrich Bergius Physiology or Medicine – Otto Heinrich Warburg Literature – Erik Axel Karlfeldt Peace – Jane Addams, Nicholas Murray Butler
[edit] References
^ Centennial of Flight ^ BBC History, July 2011, p12
The 1930s Timeline: 1931 — from American Studies Programs at The University of Virginia 1931: A Glance at the Twentieth Century by Henry Hartshorne
